Stress

Although research consistently has documented problematic consequences of stress, all children do not respond to stress in the same way. Hence, it is critical to understand when stress is likely to impair psychological and physical well-being and when stress may contribute to less adverse, or even positive, outcomes. This issue has been addressed through efforts to identify characteristics of children and their environments that either heighten (risk factors) or attenuate (protective factors) the adverse effects of stress.

A range of personal and environmental characteristics play a role in determining how children react to stress. In terms of psychological characteristics of youth, children's views of themselves and their competencies may influence their responses. For instance, children who attribute negative events in their lives to internal, stable, and global characteristics (e.g., "I failed a test because I am stupid"), and who feel a lack of control over important outcomes in their lives show increased vulnerability to depression in response to stress. In contrast, high levels of academic and social competence, high self-esteem, and adaptive coping styles may help children to deal effectively with stress, thereby protecting them against negative consequences. External resources, such as the presence of a supportive family environment or strong friendships, also may buffer children from the harmful effects of stress, but this possibility needs to be explored further before definitive conclusions can be drawn.

Children's responses to stress also may differ according to their gender and their age. Some research has shown that girls and boys display different types of vulnerability. In particular, girls may be more likely to respond to stress with emotional distress, such as feelings of anxiety and depression, whereas boys may be more likely to respond to stress with behavior problems, such as aggression. So far, little consistent evidence has emerged regarding the impact of particular types of stress across development, but it is possible that certain stressors may be more or less salient at different life stages. For instance, school-related stress may become particularly important during middle childhood, whereas friendship-related stress may become particularly important during early adolescence.

An area that has received little attention concerns the positive consequences of stress. It has been said "whatever does not kill us makes us stronger." This statement reflects the rather counterintuitive idea that, under some circumstances, the experience of stress actually may promote healthy development. For instance, encountering stressful situations may enhance children's strategies for coping with future stress or may strengthen social bonds as children seek support or advice from friends and family. Moreover, successful coping experiences may foster a sense of self-efficacy and increase children's self-esteem. An interesting direction for future research will be to distinguish when stress acts as a threat that undermines healthy development and when stress acts as a challenge that stimulates mastery or growth.